2017年_中国世界史研究网

　　The French Revolution, which began in 1789, had a profound effect on Britain, dividing the British elite and even ordinary people into those excited by and sympathetic to French principles and those opposed to and alarmed by these principles. The most intellectually profound and politically influential conservative critique of French principles was Edmund Burke’s Reflections on the Revolution in France, written as early as 1790. Many scholars have examined British views of the French Revolution from its origins to the defeat of Napoleon in 1815. This article breaks new ground by attempting an overview of British reflections on the French Revolution from 1815 to 2015. It explores three aspects of these later reflections: the major changes in the historiography of the Revolution produced by British scholars from 1815 to the present; the cultural responses to the Revolution produced by British poets, novelists, playwrights and film makers; and the impact on British political opinions of the Revolution forged by political parties and organizations on the left, right and center of politics.

　　Che Xiaomei and Zheng Min, The Silk Road and the Rise of the City Tabriz in the 13th and 14th Centuries

　　Tabriz was an important city along the Silk Road in the 13th and 14th centuries and played a significant role in the civilization communication between Asia and Europe. After Tabriz was chose as the new capital of Ilkhanate, it developed rapidly because of the interaction between the stable domestic situation and the unimpeded Silk Road. Accordingly, the scale of Tabriz expanded rapidly and it became the center of the regional trade network. The political system and culture of Ilkhanate, the character of which was inclusive and equitable, not only provided a historical opportunity for the development of Tabriz, but made the city a place where the Asian and European civilizations exchanged mutually. In this city, the material exchanged frequently and the historical prospects with the integration of the East and the West appeared comprehensively in religion, language, painting and technology This made Tabriz have crucial influence in the history of cultural communication between Asia and Europe.

　　Yin Xiaoxing, The Acceptance and Adaption of Imperial Decrees of the Ming and Qing Dynasties by Moral Education in Modern Japan

　　Since the early modern time, Japan has actively absorbed the related theories of moral education from China. During this process, the acceptance and reestablishment of Imperial decrees of the Ming and Qing dynasties were closely related to the moral education in early modern Japan. Taking the Meiji Restoration as the dividing line, dramatic changings happened in the interpretation and adoption by Japan regarding the Imperial decrees of the Ming and Qing dynasties from the early modern period to the modern time. The establishment of the modern education system in Japan was a historical process in which the unity of the ideas of the people and the state penetrated the education in schools. In such process, Imperial decrees of the Ming and Qing dynasties provided the material concerning the content and form for the promulgation of Imperial Rescript on Education by the Mikado and the primary moral education of Japan. Nevertheless, the interpretation on Imperial decrees of the Ming and Qing dynasties during the Meiji period caused the fragmentation of the morality establishment in early modern Japan and East Asia.

　　Zhang Muzhi, The Propaganda toward the American Prisoners of War during the American War of Independence and Its Significance

　　During the American War of Independence, a comprehensive propaganda system concerning the wartime experience of the American prisoners of war was formed in America including the paper, the investigation report regarding the prisoners of war, the narrative of the prisoners of war, and the wartime diaries. By virtue of the humanity, religion, right, etc., the North American revolutionists vividly depicted the various brutal behaviors of the British army treating the American prisoners of war and built a negative image of Britain as “the other with brutality and barbarism”. On the other hand, they advocated the American value of republicanism and nation’s character, the cores of which were mercy and loyalty. The propaganda regarding the prisoners of war encouraged the American people to support the revolution, deepened their identification with the virtue of republicanism and the spirit of freedom, prompted their awareness of identity realizing from the dependence on Britain to the independence. This became a significant strength prompting the American people to initially build their sense of national identity, and had its unique historical meaning in the context of the American War of Independence.

　　Wang Ruiheng, The Building of American Image by American Propaganda toward China during the Pacific War

　　The external propaganda is a crucial method for a country in building its national image abroad and promoting its foreign policy. During the Pacific War, the Office of War Information which was the formal propaganda agency of the U.S. launched the intensive propaganda programs in China. This aimed at boosting the morale of Chinese people, promoting the Sino-American friendship, and exporting the American values and the idea of the “international community”. Through the various media, including newspaper, magazine, picture show, movie and broadcast, the U.S. described itself as the model of the free democracy, the international fighter and the loyal ally of Chinese people, while it deliberately hided its internal racial issue. To satisfy the requirements of propaganda and facilitate the U.S. diplomacy toward China, the Office of War Information overly embellished the national image of the U.S. in its propaganda and exaggerated the effects of the American aid. Nevertheless, in some extent, its propaganda advanced the Chinese cognition about the U.S. and improved the cooperation between the U.S. and China during the wartime.

　　Gong Yingyan and Hu Gang, Early Migration of the Chinese to Europe: A Litigation in 16th-Century Spain

　　In 1572, a Chinese with a Spanish name, Diego Indio, filed a lawsuit against a slave owner, Morales. Diego Indio claimed that he was an Indio in the Spanish overseas territory and arrived in Spain via Americas travelling from the west to the east. Unfortunately, he was sold as a slave by Morales after his arrival. Accordingly, he appealed to the court for his freedom based on the related law. On the contrary, Morales asserted that Diego Indio was not eligible for freedom because he was from Portuguese colonies and arrived in Spain via Africa travelling from the east to the west. Lasted for three years, this lawsuit was sentenced by the court and Diego won the case. However, according to other historical records, the truth of Diego’s migration from China to Spain may not be as simple as the lawsuit indicated. This case clearly reflects the painful experience of the Chinese drifting from the east to the west in the process of early modern globalization. On the other hand, it demonstrates that the Chinese showed their excellent qualities of decent living, hardworking, and loving of their motherland since the first day they landed on Western Europe. These constitute the common genes of overseas Chinese around the world. The oversea Chinese, having endured many tribulations, still lead a vibrant and energetic life.

　　Shi Fang, Voltaire and the Enlightenment in the Police’s Journal

　　At the height of the Enlightenment in France, Voltaire was the main object of surveillance by Joseph d’Hémery, a police officer who was in charge of the inspection on the book trade. In d’Hémery’s journal, Voltaire was frequently mentioned. The anecdotes appearing in the journal, which were provided by Fréron, editor-in-chief of the anti-philosophique mouthpiece L’Année littéraire, depicted Voltaire as impudent, dishonorable, and conceited. On the contrary, d’Hémery mainly appreciated and respected Voltaire’s talent with open-minded and moderate attitude, although he regarded Voltaire as “mauvais sujet”. The suspicious books recorded in his journal further revealed that d’Hémery observed almost all the philosophes, their works and the related conflicts of their ideas, but did not recognize the Enlightenment. It was the anti-philosophes, such as Fréron, who considered the philosophes a monolithic group and fiercely debated with the “Enlightenment”, a movement of ideas which was conceived by themselves. The difference between d’Hémery and the anti-philosophes indicates the complicated relationship among the Enlightenment, the Counter-Enlightenment and the contemporary authorities.

　　Zhang Xushan, Chinese Knowledge of the Greco-Roman World in Myth of Xi Wangmu during the Period from the Han to Tang Dynasties

　　The myth of Xi Wangmu (Queen mother of the West) contained the religious belief and the geographical information of the ancient Chinese. Interweaving with the belief of Xi Wangmu, the information referring to the world outside ancient China substantially reflected the geographical ideas held by ancient Chinese in their world. They believed that the fabulous kingdom of Xi Wangmu was a far-away western state, represented the western extremity of ecumene (i.e. the inhabited world). When the great explorer, Zhang Qian, reached Central Asia in 128 BC on his mission and learned some hearsay news about the far-western country of Tiao-zhi, he related Xi Wangmu to that information and assumed that the mythological kingdom located in Tiao-zhi. However, other Chinese explorers in later time supposed the mythological kingdom located in a new country, Ta-chin, when they learned that Ta-chin was located to the far west of Tiao-zhi. Accordingly, the location of Xi Wangmu was fixed westwards further. In the Tang Dynasty, Xi Wangmu lost its geographical vitality in Chinese minds, although the Nestorian Christians travelling to China adopted the old mythological sources to describe their native land (Syria) for the purpose of mission. The myth of Xi Wangmu was originated from East China and was spread westwards due to the enlargement of Chinese geographical horizon, instead of simply borrowing the existing myth from the outside world.

　　Pang Naiming, The Real and Imagined Ta-chin: Ancient Chinese Perception of the Roman Empire

　　The direct representation of Ta-chin’s image in ancient Chinese mind was formed firstly in the Han dynasty and reached to its peak during the Wei and Jin dynasties. Compared with the actual situation of the Roman Empire, the image of Ta-chin built by Chinese on the basis of knowledge obtained from the second-hand material and other means was a western empire of might and power, an empire which was magnificent and rich, peaceful and tranquil, the people of which looked like Chinese. This empire was nearly a fairyland with fragrance, it was a representation of the illusions which ancient Chinese attached to the whole western world. In terms of the mechanism of image formation, the formation and evolution of the image of Ta-chin were not only constrained by the external conceptions in China since the pre-Qin period, but also were affected by the history and reality of the Roman Empire, the cultural exchanges and interaction between China and the West, and the countries along the Silk Road which conveyed the information regarding the Roman Empire intermediately. As the mirror image of the ‘other’ in ancient Chinese culture, the image of Ta-chin showed a picture of the illusions of Roman civilization created by ancient Chinese, from which we can catch a glimpse of the external conceptions and the social spirits of the Han and Jin dynasties.

　　Tang Yongliang, The “Modernity” Debate and “Overcoming Modernity” in Japan: The Modernism of Masao Maruyama

　　As a renowned post-WWII Japanese thinker, Masao Maruyama's analysis concerning Japan was not based on the archetype of Western modernity. Instead, he cherished his own dialectic view. He acknowledged the progressiveness of Western modernity, but criticized its “degeneration” since the middle 19th century, and therefore advocated a return to the “origin” of modernity. Based on this view, he harshly denounced the trend of “overcoming modernity”, which had prevailed during WWII and then revived afterwards. During WWII, his criticism had a non-academic end, but his means was purely academic. He targeted at the origin of “overcoming modernity”, i.e., the “diagnosis” of the time, and revealed that pre-modern Japan was not “uninfected” by modernity, as a primitive modern identity had already appeared. After WWII, his criticism was centered on the social-structural pathogens hampering the full realization of Japanese modern identity. In his view, a real Japanese modern identity could not form unless improvements in free choices among different values made by establishing a civil society and increasing inter-cultural contacts.

　　Xiao Xiaodan, The Development of French Regulations on Urban Industrial Pollution (1810-1850)

　　With the rapid growth of chemical industry and rampant increase of urban industrial pollution, France issued an Imperial Decree on 15 October 1810 to classify industrial installations and to establish a regulation system in accordance. Aiming at a steady development of industry and the reconciliation of conflicts among facility and land proprietors, the decree was far from effective due to the conciliatory attitude of provincial governments and advisory agencies. Nevertheless, the regulation and compensation system which the decree set up was influential in the European continent. The gradual correction and completion of the classification system also reflected the enhancement of environmental awareness of citizens.

　　Song Baojun, Christian European Image of the Ottoman in the 16th Century

　　The Ottoman Empire was deemed the “Sick Man of Europe” since the 19th century. However, in the early modern era, especially the 16th century, when the expansion of the Ottoman Empire reached its peak, Christian European images of the Ottoman were different and various: it was derogatorily described as the “Terror of the World”, the “Scourge of God”, and the “Enemy of Christendom”; meanwhile, the Ottoman Empire was also praised as powerful, orderly, and efficient. Some even considered it as a usable ally in political, commercial and religious conflicts in the Christian world. These images were derived from the profound hostility toward the Islamic world, the ascendency of the Ottoman power, the internal conflicts among Christian powers, and the development of modern politics. To some extent, the images of the Ottoman Empire were self-projections reflecting Christian Europe's comparative self-orientation and construction with the Ottoman Empire in mind.

　　Zou Xiang, The Madness of Isaac Newton: Multiple Explanations and the Construction of Humanities and Sciences

　　Isaac Newton, being fruitful in many theoretical fields including science, philosophy, theology, and economics, was one of the greatest minds since the modern era. There was a rumor of Newton being mad, however, its effect was rather minimal. Neither study nor biography of Newton in the 18th century mentioned that he had been plagued by any mental problem. But in the 19th century, with the emergence of relevant records, his mentality became a focus. Especially in the early 20th century, the auction of his manuscripts revealed many documents formerly unbeknownst to researchers. His madness became an intricate topic and his personality has been depicted and redepicted. No longer a paragon of wisdom and virtue, he is now interpreted as a common person with temper and flaws in character. The madness of Newton provides a lens for people to observe his different images in different times, through which the humanities and sciences' construction of madness is revealed. It also raises the question about the boundary of historical objectivity.

　　Xia Yafeng, Is the U.S.A. an Empire? —— Debates in American Political Circles and the Academia

　　Since the “9/11 incident”, and especially after the U.S. invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq, the debate on whether America was an empire reemerged among American politicians and academics. Based on their focuses, the participants could be divided into three groups: the first group discusses the definition of the “American empire”, the second examines its basis, and the third calculates the costs and benefits of the empire. America is indeed a tremendous “empire” in a military and economic sense, but the current America is drastically different from the colonial empires in the 19th and 20th centuries in terms of economy, culture and ideology. Hence, a study of the “American empire” should not only emphasize on its hard and soft power, but also introduce a theoretical framework that encompasses both microscopic data and discussions of the specific influence of the “American empire” under different conditions through case and comparative studies.

　　Fu Liang, John C. Olin's Catholic Reformation Studies

　　American historian, John C. Olin, is an important figure who uses the “Jedinian paradigm” to promote the research of the 16th-century Catholic reformation. In contrast to the traditional view which considers the 16th-century Catholic Church the embodiment of Anti-Protestantism, he acknowledges and examines the long-term reformatory forces within the Church. He argues that the Catholic reformation was a constructive movement since the late Middle Ages. In his decades of academic career, Olin compiled historical records and taught relevant courses, endeavoring to discover the ignored history of the Catholic Church and clarify the distorted part of the history. However, his framework of Catholic reformation was not immaculate. It overlooked the network of multiple denominations within the Christian community, which experienced nuanced developments in front of challenges. These developments could possibly be scrutinized from a perspective of “the revival of Catholic Church in the early modern global history”.

　　Zhou Xiaolan, The Economic-Social Crisis Theory of Ernest Labrousse

　　Ernest Labrousse, the world-renowned French social-economic historian in the mid-20th century, proposed a characteristic economic-social crisis theory which incorporates price, wage, and capital data into historical research. Making use of political-economic and sociological results from the 18th to 20th centuries, he explained the French Revolution in a framework of economic crisis, resulting in great academic repercussion among historians. After WWII, supported by the Annales School which was enthusiastic about combining historical research with other social sciences, he entered the historical circle and became a groundbreaker of a new field of historical research.

《世界历史》2017年第4期

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　　目录

　　·欧美史·

　　18世纪苏格兰启蒙运动的“商业社会”理论——以亚当·斯密为中心的考察 /李宏图(4)

　　20世纪英国学校健康服务体系探析 /魏秀春(18)

　　港口犹太人对近代早期跨大西洋贸易的参与 /艾仁贵(32)

　　近代早期英格兰的“乡绅修志”现象 /陈日华(46)

　　《萨利克法典》“神话”与十六七世纪法国排斥女性的政治文化传统 /汤晓燕(60)

　　封建危机与秩序重建——从劳工法看中世纪晚期英国社会与政治的互动 /许明杰(74)

　　·环境史·

　　“环境焦虑”与澳大利亚殖民地反华话语的构建 /费晟(87)

　　·亚洲史·

　　新机构与旧制度：马哈茂德二世时期的帝国政治 /王三义(99)

　　西方视野中的近代日本国民诚信度问题——以“町人根性”为中心 /张小龙(110)

　　·学术史·

　　从历史文明到历史空间：新印度史学的历史地理学转向 /王立新(123)

　　20世纪后半叶国外非洲边界和领土争端问题研究述评 /关培凤(141)

　　·学术动态·

　　“历史视角下的欧洲安全问题”学术研讨会在南京大学召开 /邱迪(152)

　　The Theory of the“Commercial Society” in the Scottish Enlightenment of the 18th Century: A Study Focused on Adam Smith /Li Hongtu(4)

　　The British School Health Service in the 20th Century /Wei Xiuchun(18)

　　The Role of the Port Jews in the Early Modern Trans-Atlantic Trade /Ai Rengui(32)

　　The Writing of Chorographies by the Gentry in Early Modern England /Chen Rihua(46)

　　The “Canonization” of Lex Salica and the Anti-Women Tradition in the Politics and Culture of France in the 16th and 17th Centuries /Tang Xiaoyan(60)

　　The Crisis of Feudalism and the Reestablishment of Order: The Labor Law and the

　　Social-Political Interaction in Late Medieval England /Xu Mingjie(74)

　　The “Environmental Anxiety” and the Construction of Anti-Chinese Discourse in the Australian Colonies /Fei Sheng(87)

　　New Institutions and Old Systems: The Imperial Politics during the Reign of Mahmud II /Wang Sanyi(99)

　　The State of Honesty of the Early Modern Japanese in Western Eyes: The Concept of “Chonin Konjo” /Zhang Xiaolong(110)

　　From Historical Civilization to Historical Space: The Shift in the Perception of Geography in New Studies of Indian History /Wang Lixin(123)

　　A Review of Studies on the Frontier and Territorial Disputes in Africa by Foreign Researchers in the Second Half of the 20th Century /Guan Peifeng(141)

　　SUMMARIES OF ARTICLES

　　Li Hongtu, The Theory of the“Commercial Society” in the Scottish Enlightenment of the 18th Century: A Study Focused on Adam Smith

　　Unlike the French Enlightenment, the theoretical basis of the Scottish Enlightenment was laid down by Adam Smith who proposed a theory of the “commercial society”. The majority of the thinkers in the 17th and 18th centuries usually analyzed the modern transition from a political perspective, but Smith chose the market as his starting point, discussed the moral basis of the “commercial society” and established “self-interest” as the core of the modern morality. In the market context,the operational mechanism of the“commercial society” changed, the market exchange was adopted by the entire society as its basis and principle. The prerequisite and purpose of the market exchange was to realize the fairness, which would bring the entire society the freedom， civilization and prosperity. Smith's theory was revolutionary and formed the cornerstone of the modern society, defining its fundamental features and promoting its establishment as well.

　　Wei Xiuchun, The British School Health Service in the 20th Century

　　In the early 20th century, the idea of “children of the nation” became a consensus in the sociopolitical strata in Britain, which required the nation to take the responsibility for the upbringing of British children. Hence, when the Boer War made children's health in schools as a prominent issue, the British authority passed a series of laws and regulations to establish a health service system in schools. School meals and school medical services were implemented, and the Education Act was passed in 1944. This system not only provided the health foundation for the implementation of the compulsory education, but also brought new possibilities for a national healthcare and welfare system. Functioning until 1974, the system effectively ensured the health of British school children, protected the education rights of handicapped children, facilitated the development of the child dentistry, and promoted the popularization of the children health education.

　　Ai Rengui, The Role of the Port Jews in the Early Modern Trans-Atlantic Trade

　　Since the Age of Discovery, a trade network was formed by virtue of vast economic connections and the Port Jews (mainly Sephardic Jews) played an important role in the trans-Atlantic economic system. During the 16th-18th centuries, the Port Jews achieved great success in international trade among major colonial empires. Being active in Europe, the Mediterranean, the Americas, West Africa and the Indian Ocean, the Port Jews became a major force in global economic communication. They were mainly engaged in colony-related trade exchanges, including slaves, sugar, tobacco, diamond, etc. As the backbone of the colonial expansion and the overseas trade, they facilitated the exchanges among civilizations through their active participation in the trans-Atlantic trade. Conversely, their commercial activities brought them an enormous living space and economic opportunities, greatly enriching and expanding the concept of the “Jewish Atlantic”.

　　Chen Rihua, The Writing of Chorographies by the Gentry in Early Modern England

　　The writing of chorographies in England began from the 1570s. William Lambarde's Perambulation of Kent is generally acknowledged as the first example of the chorography. From then on, there appeared with John Stow's The Survey of London, William Burton's The Description of Leicestershire, and William Dugdale's The Antiquities of Warwickshire. The writing of chorographies became prosperous. From the late 17th century, the context of natural history became a part of the chorography. It was the well-educated gentry who wrote the chorography. Some of the gentry were lawyers, heralds, and some of them were antiquarians. The authors of chorographies loved Britain and the nation, and at the same time they had strong feelings of local identification. It is the formation period of the nation state from the 16th century to the 17th century and the identification of locality and the nation state came into being. The cultural phenomenon on gentry writing the chorography also showed the identification of gentry community in early modern England.

　　Tang Xiaoyan, The “Canonization” of Lex Salica and the Anti-Women Tradition in the Politics and Culture of France in the 16th and 17th Centuries

　　The absence of queen in ruling was a phenomenon specific to the history of France and closely related to Lex Salica. Established in the 6th century, this civil code was retrieved in the 14th century and reactivated to forbid England from claiming the French throne during the Hundred Years' War and to cope with domestic separatist movements. With the compilation and reinterpretation by generations of scholars, the code became the basis for denying women's succession to the French throne in the 16th century. During this period, many female figures performed in the highest echelon of the French politics, which inevitably resulted in the reassessment of the social roles and duties of different genders. The debate on the political system and long-term formation of gender concepts, combined with the contingency of political events, resulted in the canonization of Lex Salica, which coincided with the theorization process of the anti-women tradition in French politics and culture. During the growth of a centralized nation, the political space for French women was gradually suppressed. The historical evolvement of the gender concept was deeply influenced by the development of the politics.

　　Xu Mingjie, The Crisis of Feudalism and the Reestablishment of Order: The Labor Law and the Social-Political Interaction in Late Medieval England

　　The labor law in late medieval England was realized by a massive movement of enactment led by the English crown as a reaction to the population crisis. The development of the labor law demonstrates the interaction between the politics and the social economy. For one thing, the weakening trend in content and implementation of the labor law indicates a decline of the feudal system. For another, the continuation of the labor law and certain effects achieved by the implementation of the labor law had great influence on the contemporary society and economy. Firstly, the labor law alleviated the labor crisis and helped to maintain the social stability, which preserved many elements of the old institution. Secondly, the monarchial government established new authorities in the social and economic spheres by virtue of the labor law, facilitating the transition of the state power from scattered feudal regime to a unified and centralized nation state.

　　Fei Sheng, The “Environmental Anxiety” and the Construction of Anti-Chinese Discourse in the Australian Colonies

　　In the second half of the 19th century, the communities of European immigrants in Australia integrated their anxieties concerning the environmental deterioration into the discourse of anti-Chinese racism through blaming Chinese immigrants for wasting nature resources, destroying the water-soil environment, and bringing the epidemics caused by the above behaviors in the Australian colonies. As soon as Chinese labors arrived in the Australian colonies, their interaction with the Australian environment was discussed by the public opinion. During the period of sheep farming expansion, Chinese labors were considered a group with higher ability to adapt the local environment. However, after the radical changes caused by the gold rushes, the public opinion censured the Chinese miners to directly destructed the production environment. The local political elites exaggerated that Chinese immigrants threatened the public health in the ecology of the colonies, and accordingly, stressed the reasonableness of their anti-Chinese policy. Through the examination of the Australian case, it is clear to show that the racial conflict deriving from the European colonization not only existed in the economic and cultural spheres, but contained the meaning of an ecological competition.

　　Wang Sanyi, New Institutions and Old Systems: The Imperial Politics during the Reign of Mahmud II

　　Mahmud II reformed the administration affiliated to the Ottoman Court by modelling the government departments of Western Europe. These departments, including the Ministry of the Interior, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Foreign Trade, Public Works Commission, etc., replaced the former bureaus. His reform also included the establishment of the Military Commission, the Supreme Council of Judicatures as well as the increase of the salary for civil servants. Although this reform was relatively comprehensive, the fundamental system of the empire was untouched. “Sultan-Khalifa” — the theocracy system of the state — was maintained; the “Millet” system — the management of minorities and non-Muslims — stayed intact; and the privileges of the hierarchical system were preserved. Furthermore, Mahmud II strengthened the control of local affairs and paid more attention to the loyalty of provinces and territories. His “new” army was not only an army with modern equipment, but also held absolute loyalty to the Sultan. However, Mahmud Ⅱ's political reform failed to solve the crisis. This failure was not due to the resistance of the religious rank and old forces, but was attributed to the superficiality resulted from the establishment of the new institutions, which were merely aimed at maintaining the old regime. Nevertheless, the economic aspect of his reform was remarkable, as the “Timar” system, tax farming, and traditional land system were abolished. This indicates that social progress is unattainable unless the institutional changes are realized.

　　Zhang Xiaolong, The State of Honesty of the Early Modern Japanese in Western Eyes: The Concept of “Chonin Konjo”

　　The problematic honesty of merchants in early modern Japan ultimately resulted from the low social status of “Chonin” — those who practiced business — in the feudal hierarchy and the consequent mean mentality, i.e., “Chonin Konjo”. At the beginning, this problem was confined in a single social group, and therefore did not seriously harm the international image of Japan. However, with the abolition of hierarchy after the Meiji Restoration, the concept of the social values was integrated. The honesty crisis of Japanese laborers in the U.S. in the 20th century demonstrated that the label of “Chonin Konjo” was no longer confined to merchants, but became a part of the early modern Japanese national characters.Comparing the honesty of Japanese and Chinese migrants, the American society had great doubts on the trustworthiness of Japanese people. The lack of the sense of contract was considered a general flaw of the Japanese morality. This notion was later expanded to the political sphere and the doubt on the Japanese was gradually “nationalized”, resulting in a deterioration of the image of Japan.

　　Wang Lixin, From Historical Civilization to Historical Space: The Shift in the Perception of Geography in New Studies of Indian History

　　Represented by the Oxford History of India and the Cambridge History of India, orthodox Indian history studies construed the geography of India as homologous and closed. This historical geographical interpretation, together with the notion of oriental despotism, formed the basis for the traditional understandings of Indian civilization. After the 1980s, many new studies (e.g., the New Cambridge History of India) reconstructed this historical geography by describing India as a heterogeneous and open land and decomposed the theory of oriental despotism, which altered the traditional interpretation of Indian civilization. Shifting the focus from civilization to space, what these new studies construed was a notion of historical space.

　　Guan Peifeng, A Review of Studies on the Frontier and Territorial Disputes in Africa by Foreign Researchers in the Second Half of the 20th Century

　　African nations gained their independence after WWII, and their frontier and territorial disputes became a hot topic in the second half of the 20th century which attracted the attention of foreign researchers on African issues for a long time. From the published monographs and articles, it can be found that the most popular topics among researchers included the cause of the African frontier and territorial disputes, the hot cases of these disputes, the OAU (Organization of African Unity) and the resolutions of the disputes, and the relevant legal issues in those disputes. They reached a consensus on certain issues respectively, but they also believed that some issues still required further studies. Interdisciplinary studies, especially the combination of history, politics and international law, are likely to be the future trend in this field.

《世界历史》2017年第3期

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　目录

　 ·海洋史·

　　从海洋自由到海洋霸权：威尔逊海洋政策构想的转变 /曲升(4)

　　从“帆船”到“汽船”：幕末日本海权意识萌生的器物条件 /姜春洁(17)

　　·欧美史·

　　米兰—马德里—墨西哥城——西班牙帝国的全球城市网络 /朱明(29)

　　近代早期英国治安法官的济贫实践 /初庆东(43)

　　西耶斯对卢梭的隐匿批判——论西耶斯的主权理论 /乐启良(57)

　　“天定命运”论与19世纪中期美国的国家身份观念 /滕凯炜(69)

　　·亚洲史·

　　朝鲜王朝前期的北方沿江行城建置及其防御功能 /刘阳(82)

　　阿富汗穆沙希班王朝的文化整合与族际关系 /闫伟(95)

　　·古代史·

　　拜占庭对古典医学的继承和发展 /邹薇(109)

　　古代埃及人边疆观的演变及其影响 /葛会鹏(123)

　　·史学理论·

　　“资本主义”：一个基本概念的生成及其使用 /曹龙虎(133)

　　探寻资本主义精神的犹太渊源——对桑巴特《犹太人与现代资本主义》的解读 /李晔梦(145)

　　From Freedom to Hegemony: The Transformation of Woodrow Wilson's Maritime Policy /Qu Sheng(4)

　　From Sailboat to Steamboat: The Material Basis for the Psychological Origin of Sea Power in Bakumatsu Japan /Jiang Chunjie(17)

　　Milan—Madrid—Mexico City: The Global Urban Network of the Spanish Empire /Zhu Ming(29)

　　The Poor Relief of Justices of the Peace in Early Modern England /Chu Qingdong(43)

　　Sieyès' Hidden Critique of Rousseau: Sieyès' Theory of Sovereignty /Le Qiliang(57)

　　Manifest Destiny and American Identity in the Mid-19th Century /Teng Kaiwei(69)

　　Korea's Northern Riverside Fortresses of the Early Joseon Period and Their Defensive Function /Liu Yang(82)

　　Cultural Integration and Racial Relation in the Kingdom of Afghanistan /Yan Wei(95)

　　Byzantine's Inheritance from and Development of the Ancient Medicine /Zou Wei(109)

　　The Formation of the Concept of “Frontier” in Ancient Egypt and Its Influence /Ge Huipeng(123)

　　Capitalism: The Invention and Application of a Basic Concept /Cao Longhu(133)

　　The Jewish origin of the Spirit of Capitalism：A Review on W. Sombat's The Jews and Modern Capitalism /Li Yemeng(145)

　　SUMMARIES OF ARTICLES

　　Qu Sheng, From Freedom to Hegemony: The Transformation of Woodrow Wilson's Maritime Policy

　　Woodrow Wilson's maritime policy had two aspects: to pursue the freedom of the Seas and hegemony, with the core of the policy switching from the former to the latter tacitly. His ideal of freedom of the Seas was closely related to the plan of the League of Nations, with a liberal yet imperfect nature. During the Paris Peace Conference, he made laborious and sincere endeavor to seek global recognition of his ideal of freedom of the Seas. However, with criticisms coming in from both inside and outside, he realized the disparity between his ideal and America's international interests and role.This quietly compelled him to switch to the competition of maritime hegemony against Britain. An exposition of the apparent inconsistency in Wilson's maritime policy makes it clear that in seeking strategic interests and global leadership for America, both freedom and hegemony were pragmatic in nature.

　　Jiang Chunjie, From Sailboat to Steamboat: The Material Basis for the Psychological Origin of Sea Power in Bakumatsu Japan

　　William Perry's arrival forced Japan to open its door. The impacts of this event were not limited to institutional changes brought by the Meiji Restoration. It alarmed Japan with the impending threat of Western “black boats”.It also engendered a heat of modern shipbuilding and purchasing in Bakumatsu Japan, which propelled a two dimensional transition, including from sails to steam engine and from wooden to iron hull. Hence, this transition was not only technological or industrial, but also signified the beginning of Japan's discarding of traditional insularism and awareness of sea power. Shipping was the indispensable material basis for this momentous process. Japan entered its early modernity and encountered “steamboat” after Perry's visit. Consequently, the door of Japan was open, with the coexistence of “sailboat” and “steamboat”.Then Japan gradually transformed into an expansionist maritime empire, with wooden steamboats replaced by iron ones.

　　Zhu Ming, Milan—Madrid—Mexico City: The Global Urban Network of the Spanish Empire

　　A strong tendency of homogeneity first appeared in Milan, Madrid and Mexico City, all of which were under the rule of the Spanish Empire in terms of spatial and structural arrangement. For one thing, spectacular rectangular squares became urban centers, with other parts of the cities spreading around them. For another, a lattice pattern with right angles became predominant, making cities more regular and symmetrical. This change was introduced by Italian designers, such as Alberti and Firalette, but was not initially implemented in Europe. Instead, America provided a vast space for its early realization. This in turn influenced urban designs in Europe. This study showcases the emergence of a changing network of cities within the Spanish Empire, with a circulation of urban planning thoughts of the Renaissance. It also clarifies a number of external influence on the development of European cities in the age of early globalization.

　　Chu Qingdong, The Poor Relief of Justices of the Peace in Early Modern England

　　With deepening social differentiation, the problem of poverty became much worse in early modern England. Led by justices of the peace, local governments tried to find measures for poor relief and urge the central government to issue poor relief laws. England enacted a whole series of poor relief laws in the early 17th century, which empowered justices of the peace to supervise parochial poor relief, especially material relief, vagrant control and work offering. Justices of the peace connected the central government with local ones, and their poor relieving measures reflected central-local relations in early modern England. As both central and local governments recognized poverty as significant and relevant to social stability, justices of the peace actively practiced poor relief, ensuring the smooth social transition and orderly governance of England. The poor relief of justices of the peace indicated that early modern England did not fail to coordinate the relation between local and central governments, and the relation between institutional adjustments and grass-root practices in addressing social issues.

　　Le Qiliang, Sieyès' Hidden Critique of Rousseau: Sieyès' Theory of Sovereignty

　　L'abbée Emanuel Sieyès formulated his theory of representation and limited popular sovereignty by criticizing Rousseau's doctrine. At the beginning of the French Revolution, Sieyès refuted royal veto and direct democracy by putting forth a convincing theory of representation. He claimed that representation combined all advantages of three fundamental principles: division of labor, delegation of people, and rationality of deliberation. He regarded it as the only political system applicable to the modern society. After the fall of Roberspierre's dictatorship, he began to criticize absurdities in the theory of unlimited popular sovereignty. He insisted that this theory could not build a republic (république) to provide sufficient protection for individual liberty, but will generate a horrible totalitarian monster (ré-totale) which will encroach on everything. Sieyès never mentioned Rousseau's name in public, but alluded in his manuscripts that Rousseau paved the way to the revolutionary terrorism. Since his criticism was hidden, many political thinkers omitted the difference between Sieyès and Rousseau and regarded the former as a disciple of the latter.

　　Teng Kaiwei, Manifest Destiny and American Identity in the Mid-19th Century

　　The notion of Manifest Destiny was born in the U.S. during the Westward Expansion in the mid-19th century. Based on Puritan's sense of providence and American republicanism, this notion construed the U.S. as a bearer of God's mission, which was destined to expand the land of freedom to the entire North America, even the whole world. However, there were two versions of Manifest Destiny: one used the rhetoric of “liberty, democracy, natural rights and civilization”, while the other took the perspective of racism and sexism. The ideology of Manifest Destiny was central to Americans' understanding of their identities and their relations with the world in the mid-19th century. It helped the formation of a complex American identity with internal tensions and exerted a binary influence on external relations of the U.S. This justified the territorial expansion and moralized America's foreign affairs.

　　Liu Yang, Korea's Northern Riverside Fortresses of the Early Joseon Period and Their Defensive Function

　　Korea's Northern Riverside Fortresses, also known as the “Korean Great Wall”, was built in the early Joeson period at its northern frontier (i.e., the southern banks of the Yalu and Tumen Rivers) to defend against the Jurchen people. Starting from 1440 and lasting for about half a century, two phases were discernible in the building of the project: construction and refurbishment. Besides, there was also a long-term period of maintenance. The purpose of this project was “to protect the country and enclose the territory” by the combination of fortresses and rivers. However, due to the lack of proper management and the establishment of the Qing dynasty, this project was finally abandoned. A review of the history of the project and its defensive function is conducive to understanding the relation between farming and fishing-gathering peoples in pre-modern Northeast Asia.

　　Yan Wei, Cultural Integration and Racial Relation in the Kingdom of Afghanistan

　　From the 1930s to 1970s, the Kingdom of Afghanistan tried to create a national identity out of a multifaceted society. It gradually substituted Pashto for Persian as its official language, and reinterpreted the history of Afghanistan to strengthen a collective memory. According to such interpretation, modern Afghanistan was the descendent of the ancient Aryan civilization, and Pashtuns were the major group in modern Afghanistan. The kingdom tried to enforce a cultural integration by the preponderance of Pashtun culture, achieving an emphasis on national identity and a diminution of ethnic identities. However, this attempt in effect clarified the differences among ethnic groups, serving to intensify racial conflicts and casting a great impact on racial issues in contemporary Afghanistan.

　　Zou Wei, Byzantine's Inheritance from and Development of the Ancient Medicine

　　The Byzantine medicine accepted the gist of its ancient counterpart by inheriting the latter's system of thought, medical institutions, diagnosis and treatment. Meanwhile, the Empire saw a number of important improvements on ancient pathology, practices, and pharmaceutics, crystalizing them as many valuable books. The establishment of hospitals in Byzantine put the Empire on a par with its contemporaneous Europe in terms of sustaining public health. The management and regulation of hospitals by the Empire also became a model for early modern Western medical institutions.

　　Ge Huipeng, The Formation of the Concept of “Frontier” in Ancient Egypt and Its Influence

　　Various records relating to the “frontier” existed in Ancient Egyptian documents. This concept was first used to demarcate regional boundaries within Egypt. But with the development of geographical knowledge and the growth of kingship, the idea of an external frontier appeared, making it a notion full of outward expectations from the initial fear of internal turmoil. This conceptual transition indicates that the influence of the Egyptian kingship over adjacent areas, with its corresponding shifts in policy and governance in different frontier areas, which helped with the formation of ancient Egyptians' community awareness and external relations. It also reflected ancient Egypt's unification process in the Nile River valley.

　　Cao Longhu, Capitalism: The Invention and Application of a Basic Concept

　　Although the majority of reference books would attribute “capitalism”to the occurrence of the capitalist mode of production in the 15th or 16th century, this term did not appear sporadically in academic works until the late 19th century. From the 20th century, the heat of socialist movements made this term popular as the rival of socialism. As a deeply political concept, “capitalism” was mainly used in socio-political contexts. Later, this term has found its way frequently into academic discourses. The term was extremely propitious for the production of knowledge. It easily retained and incorporated other concepts and their derivations. With repeated occurrences in daily and academic life, the connotation of “capitalism” was also gradually clarified, making it a catchword basic to human minds.

　　Li Yemeng, The Jewish origin of the Spirit of Capitalism：A Review on W. Sombat's The Jews and Modern Capitalism

　　In terms of The Jews and Modern Capitalism written by Werner Sombart, this book is the first monograph to systematically discuss the Jewish factors in the process of rising of modern capitalism. On one hand, it depicts the role played by Jews in the shaping of the modern economic structure. On the other hand, it observes the special social psychology and moral factors in Jewish religious ethics and life style, revealing the relationship between those factors and the spirit of capitalism.Sambart emphasizes that the most obvious personification of “the spirit of capitalism” is embodied by the Jews, and some Jewish religious ideologies created “the spirit of capitalism”. His above viewpoints called into questions of other academics. The disputes concerning “Sombart's proposition”motivate the academia to futher explore the historical puzzle of Jews and capitalism and deepen the discussion and thinking regarding the Jewish economic and social history, the origins and motivation of capitalism.

《世界历史》2017年第2期

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目录

　　·国际关系史·

　　“未来潮流”之争：中美意识形态对抗与20世纪60年代美国的东南亚政策 /张杨(4)

　　石油标价权斗争与美国的中东石油政策（1970—1971） /郑功(18)

　　·亚非史·

　　英属中部和东部非洲殖民地的城镇劳动力政策 /李鹏涛(31)

　　明清鼎革后东亚文化共同体内各国的中国观——以安南使人对“薙发易服”的态度为视角 /刘永连刘家兴(46)

　　日本的“近代”与“近代的超克”之辩——以丸山真男的近代观为中心 /唐永亮(59)

　　·欧洲史·

　　法国城市工业污染管制模式溯源（1810—1850） /肖晓丹(73)

　　16世纪欧洲基督教徒的奥斯曼观念探析 /宋保军(86)

　　走近艾萨克·牛顿的疯癫：人文与科学的多重阐释与构建 /邹翔(99)

　　·学术史·

　　美国是“帝国”吗？——对美国政界学界相关争论的辨析 /夏亚峰(114)

　　天主教的主体性与历史诠释——约翰·奥林的天主教改革研究 /付亮(127)

　　拉布鲁斯经济社会危机理论研究探析 /周小兰(141)

　CONTENTS　

　　The War for the “Wave of the Future”: Sino-American Ideological Confrontation and U.S. South-East Asia Policies in the 1960s /Zhang Yang(4)

　　The Struggle for the Control over Posted Oil Prices and the U.S.Oil Policies in the Middle East (1970-1971) /Zheng Gong(18)

　　The Urban Labor Policy of British Central and Eastern Africa /Li Pengtao(31)

　　The Views of the East Asian Cultural Community on China after the Dynastic Transition from Ming to Qing: The Attitudes of Annamese Emissaries on “Hair-Cutting”

　　and “Costume-Changing” /Liu Yonglian and Liu Jiaxing(46)

　　The “Modernity” Debate and “Overcoming Modernity” in Japan: The Modernism of Masao Maruyama /Tang Yongliang(59)

　　The Development of French Regulations on Urban Industrial Pollution (1810-1850) /Xiao Xiaodan(73)

　　Christian European Image of the Ottoman in the 16th Century /Song Baojun(86)

　　The Madness of Isaac Newton: Multiple Explanations and the Construction of Humanities and Sciences /Zou Xiang(99)

　　Is the U.S.A. an Empire?—— Debates in American Political Circles and the Academia /Xia Yafeng(114)

　　John C. Olin's Catholic Reformation Studies /Fu Liang(127)

　　The Economic-Social Crisis Theory of Ernest Labrousse /Zhou Xiaolan(141)

　　SUMMARIES OF ARTICLES

　　Zhang Yang, The War for the “Wave of the Future”: Sino-American Ideological Confrontation and U.S. South-East Asia Policies in the 1960s

　　Since the birth of the People's Republic of China, U.S. policy makers have been constantly assessing and analyzing the power and influence of China, weighing China' impact on the formulation of U.S. Asia policy. In the 1960s, concerning about the possible attraction of a successful “China model” to other Asian nations, U.S. policy makers started to emphasize China's importance in giving rise to the “trend of the future”. This concern with the America's authority and status in Asia partly contributed to the escalation of the Vietnam War. A review of the “trend of the future” discourse would be helpful to reassess the cause and effect of U.S. South-East Asia policies during that period. How the United States understood China in relation to this is still a determinant of America's China policy.

　　Zheng Gong, The Struggle for the Control over Posted Oil Prices and the U.S.Oil Policies in the Middle East (1970-1971)

　　In December 1970, OPEC started a struggle against major oil companies and their countries (mainly the U.S.) so as to raise and control oil prices. At the beginning, the U.S. government supported oil companies by loosening restrictions of the Antitrust Law. However, as the oil in the Middle East was indispensable to the U.S. and other Western powers, and due to the increase of anti-American sentiments in the Middle East, the U.S. government changed its position and began to persuade oil companies to make compromises. OPEC won the struggle and took the control over oil prices, and as a result, oil prices increased drastically. This event marked the decline of America's hegemony in the oil market and the beginning of the first oil crisis.

　　Li Pengtao, The Urban Labor Policy of British Central and Eastern Africa

　　Since the establishment of the British colonial rule in Central and Eastern Africa, British colonial administrators regarded tribe as a basic unit of the African society. According to their imagination, African people could not be accustomed to modern economic and urban life, and Africans living in urban areas were regarded as the “detribalized” people. However, with the development of colonial economy and the upheaval of strikes since the 1930s, the colonial authorities were forced to recognize the existence of African urban groups and took the policy of labor stabilization. The transformation of labor policies from “detribalization” to labor stabilization reflected a shift in British colonizers' perceptions of the African society and the decline of the colonial power, which formed the background in the decolonization movements in the 1950s and the 1960s.

　　Liu Yonglian and Liu Jiaxing, The Views of the East Asian Cultural Community on China after the Dynastic Transition from Ming to Qing：The Attitudes of Annamese Emissaries on “Hair-Cutting” and “Costume-Changing”

　　The late Qianlong's reign paralleled the political transition from the later Lê to Tay So'n dynasty in Annam. The obvious difference in attitudes of Annamese emissaries from these two dynasties arose from a complex interaction among national, cultural, psychological, political and international considerations, reflecting Annam's attitudes to and views on the Qing dynasty. Meanwhile, other East Asian countries' views on China also reflected their own perspectives and deliberations. Although Korea, Japan and Annam all disliked the Qing, their actions were varied separately and differently. This phenomenon was driven by the specific circumstances of international relations in East Asia. It adumbrated the gradual alienation of other East Asian countries from China and the different paths of development which these countries followed in later times.