《世界历史》2017年第3期

　目 录

　  ·海洋史·

　　从海洋自由到海洋霸权：威尔逊海洋政策构想的转变 /曲升(4)

　　从“帆船”到“汽船”：幕末日本海权意识萌生的器物条件 /姜春洁(17)

　　·欧美史·

　　米兰—马德里—墨西哥城——西班牙帝国的全球城市网络 /朱明(29)

　　近代早期英国治安法官的济贫实践 /初庆东(43)

　　西耶斯对卢梭的隐匿批判——论西耶斯的主权理论 /乐启良(57)

　　“天定命运”论与19世纪中期美国的国家身份观念 /滕凯炜(69)

　　·亚洲史·

　　朝鲜王朝前期的北方沿江行城建置及其防御功能 /刘阳(82)

　　阿富汗穆沙希班王朝的文化整合与族际关系 /闫伟(95)

　　·古代史·

　　拜占庭对古典医学的继承和发展 /邹薇(109)

　　古代埃及人边疆观的演变及其影响 /葛会鹏(123)

　　·史学理论·

　　“资本主义”：一个基本概念的生成及其使用 /曹龙虎(133)

　　探寻资本主义精神的犹太渊源——对桑巴特《犹太人与现代资本主义》的解读 /李晔梦(145)

　　From Freedom to Hegemony: The Transformation of Woodrow Wilson's Maritime Policy /Qu Sheng(4)

　　From Sailboat to Steamboat: The Material Basis for the Psychological Origin of Sea Power in Bakumatsu Japan /Jiang Chunjie(17)

　　Milan—Madrid—Mexico City: The Global Urban Network of the Spanish Empire /Zhu Ming(29)

　　The Poor Relief of Justices of the Peace in Early Modern England /Chu Qingdong(43)

　　Sieyès' Hidden Critique of Rousseau: Sieyès' Theory of Sovereignty /Le Qiliang(57)

　　Manifest Destiny and American Identity in the Mid-19th Century /Teng Kaiwei(69)

　　Korea's Northern Riverside Fortresses of the Early Joseon Period and Their Defensive Function /Liu Yang(82)

　　Cultural Integration and Racial Relation in the Kingdom of Afghanistan /Yan Wei(95)

　　Byzantine's Inheritance from and Development of the Ancient Medicine /Zou Wei(109)

　　The Formation of the Concept of “Frontier” in Ancient Egypt and Its Influence /Ge Huipeng(123)

　　Capitalism: The Invention and Application of a Basic Concept /Cao Longhu(133)

　　The Jewish origin of the Spirit of Capitalism：A Review on W. Sombat's The Jews and Modern Capitalism /Li Yemeng(145)

　　SUMMARIES OF ARTICLES

　　Qu Sheng, From Freedom to Hegemony: The Transformation of Woodrow Wilson's Maritime Policy

　　Woodrow Wilson's maritime policy had two aspects: to pursue the freedom of the Seas and hegemony, with the core of the policy switching from the former to the latter tacitly. His ideal of freedom of the Seas was closely related to the plan of the League of Nations, with a liberal yet imperfect nature. During the Paris Peace Conference, he made laborious and sincere endeavor to seek global recognition of his ideal of freedom of the Seas. However, with criticisms coming in from both inside and outside, he realized the disparity between his ideal and America's international interests and role.This quietly compelled him to switch to the competition of maritime hegemony against Britain. An exposition of the apparent inconsistency in Wilson's maritime policy makes it clear that in seeking strategic interests and global leadership for America, both freedom and hegemony were pragmatic in nature.

　　Jiang Chunjie, From Sailboat to Steamboat: The Material Basis for the Psychological Origin of Sea Power in Bakumatsu Japan

　　William Perry's arrival forced Japan to open its door. The impacts of this event were not limited to institutional changes brought by the Meiji Restoration. It alarmed Japan with the impending threat of Western “black boats”.It also engendered a heat of modern shipbuilding and purchasing in Bakumatsu Japan, which propelled a two dimensional transition, including from sails to steam engine and from wooden to iron hull. Hence, this transition was not only technological or industrial, but also signified the beginning of Japan's discarding of traditional insularism and awareness of sea power. Shipping was the indispensable material basis for this momentous process. Japan entered its early modernity and encountered “steamboat” after Perry's visit. Consequently, the door of Japan was open, with the coexistence of “sailboat” and “steamboat”.Then Japan gradually transformed into an expansionist maritime empire, with wooden steamboats replaced by iron ones.

　　Zhu Ming, Milan—Madrid—Mexico City: The Global Urban Network of the Spanish Empire

　　A strong tendency of homogeneity first appeared in Milan, Madrid and Mexico City, all of which were under the rule of the Spanish Empire in terms of spatial and structural arrangement. For one thing, spectacular rectangular squares became urban centers, with other parts of the cities spreading around them. For another, a lattice pattern with right angles became predominant, making cities more regular and symmetrical. This change was introduced by Italian designers, such as Alberti and Firalette, but was not initially implemented in Europe. Instead, America provided a vast space for its early realization. This in turn influenced urban designs in Europe. This study showcases the emergence of a changing network of cities within the Spanish Empire, with a circulation of urban planning thoughts of the Renaissance. It also clarifies a number of external influence on the development of European cities in the age of early globalization.

　　Chu Qingdong, The Poor Relief of Justices of the Peace in Early Modern England

　　With deepening social differentiation, the problem of poverty became much worse in early modern England. Led by justices of the peace, local governments tried to find measures for poor relief and urge the central government to issue poor relief laws. England enacted a whole series of poor relief laws in the early 17th century, which empowered justices of the peace to supervise parochial poor relief, especially material relief, vagrant control and work offering. Justices of the peace connected the central government with local ones, and their poor relieving measures reflected central-local relations in early modern England. As both central and local governments recognized poverty as significant and relevant to social stability, justices of the peace actively practiced poor relief, ensuring the smooth social transition and orderly governance of England. The poor relief of justices of the peace indicated that early modern England did not fail to coordinate the relation between local and central governments, and the relation between institutional adjustments and grass-root practices in addressing social issues.

　　Le Qiliang, Sieyès' Hidden Critique of Rousseau: Sieyès' Theory of Sovereignty

　　L'abbée Emanuel Sieyès formulated his theory of representation and limited popular sovereignty by criticizing Rousseau's doctrine. At the beginning of the French Revolution, Sieyès refuted royal veto and direct democracy by putting forth a convincing theory of representation. He claimed that representation combined all advantages of three fundamental principles: division of labor, delegation of people, and rationality of deliberation. He regarded it as the only political system applicable to the modern society. After the fall of Roberspierre's dictatorship, he began to criticize absurdities in the theory of unlimited popular sovereignty. He insisted that this theory could not build a republic (république) to provide sufficient protection for individual liberty, but will generate a horrible totalitarian monster (ré-totale) which will encroach on everything. Sieyès never mentioned Rousseau's name in public, but alluded in his manuscripts that Rousseau paved the way to the revolutionary terrorism. Since his criticism was hidden, many political thinkers omitted the difference between Sieyès and Rousseau and regarded the former as a disciple of the latter.

　　Teng Kaiwei, Manifest Destiny and American Identity in the Mid-19th Century

　　The notion of Manifest Destiny was born in the U.S. during the Westward Expansion in the mid-19th century. Based on Puritan's sense of providence and American republicanism, this notion construed the U.S. as a bearer of God's mission, which was destined to expand the land of freedom to the entire North America, even the whole world. However, there were two versions of Manifest Destiny: one used the rhetoric of “liberty, democracy, natural rights and civilization”, while the other took the perspective of racism and sexism. The ideology of Manifest Destiny was central to Americans' understanding of their identities and their relations with the world in the mid-19th century. It helped the formation of a complex American identity with internal tensions and exerted a binary influence on external relations of the U.S. This justified the territorial expansion and moralized America's foreign affairs.

　　Liu Yang, Korea's Northern Riverside Fortresses of the Early Joseon Period and Their Defensive Function

　　Korea's Northern Riverside Fortresses, also known as the “Korean Great Wall”, was built in the early Joeson period at its northern frontier (i.e., the southern banks of the Yalu and Tumen Rivers) to defend against the Jurchen people. Starting from 1440 and lasting for about half a century, two phases were discernible in the building of the project: construction and refurbishment. Besides, there was also a long-term period of maintenance. The purpose of this project was “to protect the country and enclose the territory” by the combination of fortresses and rivers. However, due to the lack of proper management and the establishment of the Qing dynasty, this project was finally abandoned. A review of the history of the project and its defensive function is conducive to understanding the relation between farming and fishing-gathering peoples in pre-modern Northeast Asia.

　　Yan Wei, Cultural Integration and Racial Relation in the Kingdom of Afghanistan

　　From the 1930s to 1970s, the Kingdom of Afghanistan tried to create a national identity out of a multifaceted society. It gradually substituted Pashto for Persian as its official language, and reinterpreted the history of Afghanistan to strengthen a collective memory. According to such interpretation, modern Afghanistan was the descendent of the ancient Aryan civilization, and Pashtuns were the major group in modern Afghanistan. The kingdom tried to enforce a cultural integration by the preponderance of Pashtun culture, achieving an emphasis on national identity and a diminution of ethnic identities. However, this attempt in effect clarified the differences among ethnic groups, serving to intensify racial conflicts and casting a great impact on racial issues in contemporary Afghanistan.

　　Zou Wei, Byzantine's Inheritance from and Development of the Ancient Medicine

　　The Byzantine medicine accepted the gist of its ancient counterpart by inheriting the latter's system of thought, medical institutions, diagnosis and treatment. Meanwhile, the Empire saw a number of important improvements on ancient pathology, practices, and pharmaceutics, crystalizing them as many valuable books. The establishment of hospitals in Byzantine put the Empire on a par with its contemporaneous Europe in terms of sustaining public health. The management and regulation of hospitals by the Empire also became a model for early modern Western medical institutions.

　　Ge Huipeng, The Formation of the Concept of “Frontier” in Ancient Egypt and Its Influence

　　Various records relating to the “frontier” existed in Ancient Egyptian documents. This concept was first used to demarcate regional boundaries within Egypt. But with the development of geographical knowledge and the growth of kingship, the idea of an external frontier appeared, making it a notion full of outward expectations from the initial fear of internal turmoil. This conceptual transition indicates that the influence of the Egyptian kingship over adjacent areas, with its corresponding shifts in policy and governance in different frontier areas, which helped with the formation of ancient Egyptians' community awareness and external relations. It also reflected ancient Egypt's unification process in the Nile River valley.

　　Cao Longhu, Capitalism: The Invention and Application of a Basic Concept

　　Although the majority of reference books would attribute “capitalism”to the occurrence of the capitalist mode of production in the 15th or 16th century, this term did not appear sporadically in academic works until the late 19th century. From the 20th century, the heat of socialist movements made this term popular as the rival of socialism. As a deeply political concept, “capitalism” was mainly used in socio-political contexts. Later, this term has found its way frequently into academic discourses. The term was extremely propitious for the production of knowledge. It easily retained and incorporated other concepts and their derivations. With repeated occurrences in daily and academic life, the connotation of “capitalism” was also gradually clarified, making it a catchword basic to human minds.

　　Li Yemeng, The Jewish origin of the Spirit of Capitalism：A Review on W. Sombat's The Jews and Modern Capitalism

　　In terms of The Jews and Modern Capitalism written by Werner Sombart, this book is the first monograph to systematically discuss the Jewish factors in the process of rising of modern capitalism. On one hand, it depicts the role played by Jews in the shaping of the modern economic structure. On the other hand, it observes the special social psychology and moral factors in Jewish religious ethics and life style, revealing the relationship between those factors and the spirit of capitalism.Sambart emphasizes that the most obvious personification of “the spirit of capitalism” is embodied by the Jews, and some Jewish religious ideologies created “the spirit of capitalism”. His above viewpoints called into questions of other academics. The disputes concerning “Sombart's proposition”motivate the academia to futher explore the historical puzzle of Jews and capitalism and deepen the discussion and thinking regarding the Jewish economic and social history, the origins and motivation of capitalism.