　　The Formation of the Dual Identity of the Ryukyu Kingdom and Its Tributary and Commercial Relations in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties /You Shujun(4)

　　The Commercial Relation between Qianlong Government and the Kazakh Khanate /Chen Dongjie(20)

　　“Five Kings” and “Four Emperors”:The Transmission of the “Concept of the World” among Eurasia /Wang Yongping(30)

　　Coercive Patriotism: German Immigrants and “One Hundred Percent Americanism” /Wu Bin(40)

　　American Expansionists' Role of “Civilized Nations” and Their Attitudes to Arbitration in the Early 20th Century /Liu Yiyong(50)

　　The English Cattle Plague and the Government Intervention, 1745-1758 /Ren Youquan(66)

　　The Girard Incident and the Jurisdictional Authority over the United States Forces Japan /Kong Chenxu(77)

　　The Spratly Islands Affair and the Negotiations among China, France and Japan /Guo Yuan(87)

　　Miletus and Persia: The Position of a Local Community in a Despotic Empire /Yan Shaoxiang(98)

　　The Offering Ritual of the King in Ancient Egypt and Its Social Functions /Guo Zilin(113)

　　The Rise and Development of Roman Frontier Studies in the Western Academia /Feng Dingxiong(124)

　　A Political History from the Elite to the Mass: British Historians' Researches on Kett's Rebellion /Liu Bo(136)

　SUMMARIES OF ARTICLES

　　You Shujun, The Formation of the Dual Identity of the Ryukyu Kingdom and Its Tributary and Commercial Relations in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties

　　After the establishment of a tributary relation with the Ming dynasty, the Ryukyu Kingdom profited via the tributary and commercial system of East and Southeast Asia, which instigated the greed of Satsuma Domain.Being aware of the invasion of Ryukyu and the limitation of its strength, the Ming dynasty took a policy of “decennial tribute” to exclude disguised Japanese from Ryukyu embassies.In order to maintain the normal trade with China and relieve the financial difficulty, Ryukyu government concealed the extortion by Satsuma and its dual subordination status both to China and Japan, and repeatedly petitioned for the abolition of this policy.In the early Qing dynasty, although Ryukyu firstly sent embassies to the southern Ming government, it then turned to the Qing dynasty.As a result, the tributary and commercial relationship was maintained, as well as the autonomy of Ryukyu, to some extent.In sum, changes in international relations in East Asia were resulted from strategies taken by different nations in protecting their selfinterests.

　　Chen Dongjie, The Commercial Relation between Qianlong Government and the Kazakh Khanate

　　The trade between China and the Kazakh Khanate during Qianlong's reign is an extensively discussed topic in the academia.It is commonly believed that the trade was a “special offer” to the Kazakh Khanate provided by the Qing government and the trade was in fact a “tie” (binding or control).However, researches from the single perspective of the Qing government are prone to overestimate the restrictiveness of this “tie”.Firstly, tea, as a crucial element for the central government to control nomads, never appeared in the trade with the Kazakhs.Secondly, some neglect the initiative of the Kazakhs, taking them as mere recipients of the “tie” policy.Hence, the lack of deep analysis of the historical context results in a biased categorization of the trade.

　　Wang Yongping, “Five Kings” and “Four Emperors”:The Transmission of the “Concept of the World” among Eurasia

　　Akhbār alSīn wa'lHind, an ancient Arabian document, records a conversation between an Arabian merchant and a Chinese emperor, discussing rulers and religions (Islam, Christianity, Buddhism) around the world.Such records are abundant in ancient Arabian literature, mainly depicting a picture of “five kings”: the king of Iraq located at the center, encircled by the kings of China, Turks, India, and Byzantine.It demonstrates the ancient Arabian people's view of the world.Coincidentally, similar legends of “four emperors” were prevalent among ancient India, Central Asia, and China.The idea originated in India, reflecting the world concept of ancient Indian Buddhism.It not only envisioned that the world was governed by the lord of human, the lord of horse, the lord of treasure, and the lord of elephant, who corresponded to China, Turks, Byzantine, and India respectively, while India was the center of the world; but also influenced legends in Central Asia and China.The Arabian “five kings” and Indian “four emperors” indicate that there was mutual influence between the ideology of ancient Mesopotamia and ancient India.Actually, it illustrated the transmission of a “concept of the world” among Eurasia.

　　Wu Bin, Coercive Patriotism: German Immigrants and “One Hundred Percent Americanism”

　　At the beginning of WWI, the support of German immigrants for their motherland incurred a widespread repulsion of mainstream American society, who had formerly viewed GermanAmericans as an exemplary group of immigrants.The extreme theory of “One Hundred Percent Americanism” was widely accepted, and German immigrants became direct victims of its practice.Their constitutional rights were ignored, and fundamental human rights were even trampled.It not only severely damaged the subsistence of German culture in the U.S., but also reflected the relativity and limitation of civil rights in a country where the notion of freedom and democracy prevailed.

　　Liu Yiyong, American Expansionists' Role of “Civilized Nations” and Their Attitudes to Arbitration in the Early 20th Century

　　Coexisting and prevailing in the early 20th century America, expansionism and “Arbitrationism” (the belief in international arbitration) were two contradictory yet compatible views on the international order.Consequently, views of different expansionists on arbitration reflected this consistency and incongruity.These views were largely influenced and shaped by the holders' understanding of the role of “civilized nations”.Specifically, Alfred T.Mahan, an ardent advocator of “the clash of civilizations”, firmly opposed arbitration; Theodore Roosevelt, who held an optimistic view on the “lineal progression of civilizations”, supported arbitration with reservation; Lyman Abbott, believing in the union of “civilized nations”, vehemently propagated arbitration.Generally speaking, their understanding was parochial and snobbish, even mingled with a strong sense of superiority.As a result, their perception of nations with different cultures and in various levels of development was distorted.Hence they failed to support and sustain arbitration consistently.

　　Ren Youquan, The English Cattle Plague and the Government Intervention, 1745-1758

　　The 18th century witnessed the recurrences of cattle plague in England, including the most severe and persistent one in the middle of the century.It damaged agricultural production and trade, and exacerbated the conflict between agriculture and manufacture.Under the pressure of manufacturers, the English government repealed the injunction against the importation of Irish cattle.Faced with the plague, the government responded with active intervention and instituted many measures to minimize the impact.However, faults in management and limits on conditions resulted in unsatisfactory outcomes and the ultimate failure.

　　Kong Chenxu, The Girard Incident and the Jurisdictional Authority over the United States Forces Japan

　　In the 1950s, a special period when the adjustment of JapanAmerican relations occurred, the Eisenhower government tactfully resolved the conflict between the Girard incident and the jurisdictional authority over the United States Forces Japan (USFJ), and thus gained the confidence and alliance of Japan and avoided adverse influence on the image of the United States Forces in Asia.The decision of the U.S.government indicated that 1), the demand of the Japanese government on a new JapanAmerican alliance and the fury of the Japanese public on the brutal incident were external factors causing the U.S.armed forces to try to resolve the case via stereotypical procedures and its complication; 2), the reluctance of American decision makers in granting Japan the jurisdictional authority over the USFJ was the major cause of the incident's complication; 3), the opinions of the Congressmen and the public contributed to the ambivalent attitude of the U.S.government.

　　Guo Yuan, The Spratly Islands Affair and the Negotiations among China, France and Japan

　　In the 1930s, in order to control the South China Sea, France government occupied some of the Spratly Islands, resulting in two disparate negotiations between China and France, and China and Japan.Due to its weak national strength, despite that the Republic of China government had solid evidence, it could not but postpone the discussion over this issue, foreshadowing the Spratly Islands dispute between China and Vietnam.On the other hand, the expansion of Japan to the Spratly Islands collided with the interest of France.As a result, they ignored the request of China, and formed an adjusted relation of “coexistence” in the South China Sea.Nevertheless, their temporary control could not provide historical or legal foundation for resolving the territory dispute.This affair reflected the distribution and fluctuation of strengths of the great powers in the South China Sea and Southeast Asia.

　　Yan Shaoxiang, Miletus and Persia: The Position of a Local Community in a Despotic Empire

　　Based on the ancient Persian and Greek literature, this paper probes into the relations between Miletus and the central government of the Persian Empire, suggesting that Miletus's position was not reduced dramatically under Cyrus and Cambyses compared with that under Lydia.It was basically an autonomous local community.Although under Darius, the Persians might have intervened in the local politics more frequently, which might have contributed to the revolt of Miletus in 499 B.C., but it remained an internally autonomous community, to some extent.A survey of Asia Minor, Phoenicia, and Cyprus under the Achaemenids indicates that the political strategy of the Persian Empire is very similar to that of the Roman Empire.The Persian Kings' political philosophy was to control the upper politics, ensuring their supervision of the higher magistrates and the governors of the satrapies on one hand, while allowing the local communities to administer their own business on the other hand.It was both a reasonable response to historical circumstances and an embodiment of their political wisdom.

　　Guo Zilin, The Offering Ritual of the King in Ancient Egypt and Its Social Functions

　　The Offering Ritual of the King was a set of very important phenomena in ancient Egypt, which comprised of the celebration ritual of victory, daily offering rituals to gods and royal ancestors, and even the deification ritual of the king.As a perfect complex of religious and secular aspects, this kind of rituals played very great roles in the practice and survival of kingship during the history of ancient Egypt.Those rituals, along with sculptures and inscriptions on the walls of temples, broadcasted the idea that the king, the royal family, and even their ruling were divine throughout the country, especially propagandized and emphasized the king's military and religious power, and finally enhanced the national identity and solidarity among different social levels.

　　Feng Dingxiong, The Rise and Development of Roman Frontier Studies in the Western Academia

　　Roman Frontier Studies (RFS) in the western academia started relatively late, and relevant studies were not systematic until the first half of the 20th century.In the middle of the 20th century, RFS has emerged as a subdiscipline.The rise of RFS is germane to the collection, categorization, and archaeological investigation of Roman frontier inscriptions.The RFS international conference, regularly held between 1949 and 2012, not only presented the latest research results, but also played a very important role in the development of the subdiscipline.Furthermore, the burgeon of academic worksregional or comprehensiveon the Roman frontier, and the diversity of relevant theories has greatly prompted the development of RTS and indicated new academic trends.Meanwhile, interdisciplinary and comparative studies of the frontiers of Rome and other contemporaneous powers has also characterized the new era.

　　Liu Bo, A Political History from the Elite to the Mass: British Historians' Researches on Kett's Rebellion

　　Kett's Rebellion in 1549 is an everlasting topic among British historians.With the progress of time, the finding of new records, and the application of new methods, researches proceeds as well.The research perspective has transformed from “downwards” to “upwards”; the methodology has developed from “political” to “social”.This paper provides a comprehensive description and evaluation of the characteristics of times, major researchers and arguments of the British historical academia in the vicinity of Kett's Rebellion, in the hope of shedding some light on Chinese scholars' studies of foreign peasant wars.

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